HOW TO BECOME MILLIONAIRE USING INTERNET SERVICES?

Internet

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and peer-to-peer networks for file sharing.

The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication via computer networks. The primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. The funding of the National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial extensions, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks.The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s marks the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet, and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, the commercialization incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life.

Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the 20 years since 1995, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, to over one third of the world population. Most traditional communications media, including telephony, radio, television, paper mail and newspapers are being reshaped or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephony, Internet television music, digital newspapers, and video streaming websites. Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet.[citation needed] The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has grown exponentially both for major retailers and small businesses and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their "bricks and mortar" presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods and services entirely online. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.

The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies. Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.Courtesy of wikipedia///

World

World is gigantic and huge to the amazing extent.Everything in this world is in plenty.As many men are in the world so many different and amazing skills are present in this world.Moreover,population is increasing day by day and so the more skillful persons are appearing on the landscape of the world.

History of a man who became millionaire

There was a graduate young boy unfortunately used to drive rickshaw due to unemployment.His qualification was B.A.It was his routine to drive rickshaw daily.Someone who was much familiar to the internet field and freelancing too.That person knew well about online jobs.He said to boy why are driving rickshaw you have skills go and learn the methodology of freelancing and implement your skills.In this way you can earn a lot.

Young boy earned 100,00000 in one year only 

A B.A graduated boy accepted the advice of that expert and went for learning.He learned a lot and struggled a lot in this field.After becoming well familiar with online jobs he started working online jobs and implement his all skills.He worked day and night and served the humanity by his skills in the field of freelancing.In the reward of humanity service,he earned 100,00000 rupee just in in year.

Set your target and goal

Initially set your target and decide what to do for humanity and what do you have to present in the internet market.Enlist your skills and start working online on any media like fiver,up work or people per hour etc.

Be ready to defend yourself against global village

Suppose you are going to start your freelancing career.For this firstly your customers will like to know about you by your CV. He will check your online work experience further will try to know about your certifications too.In the very start if fortunately your customer assigns you work to do,then you would get very low pay in start and your work possibly may be defected.So,bear all these situations and continue to work online.You will get famous and handsome amounts but with the passage of time when there is enough working experience in your hand .

JOB CAREER IN A MAN'S LIFE?

Background of  a man's life

A man's life is a collection of many steps.Man's life is continuously full of ups and downs.The worldly standards of the present world has increased to the extent that a common and poor man cannot survive in this rich and wealth full environment.The summary of all the struggles of a man is the earning.A man gets education for money and works hard for money.We all people observe that if someone sets his goal of life that he will do M.A or any other subject master,he has to spend countless asset to reach his destination.He spends money and wealth,time and power,sometimes he gets fever,other personal problems,tired,headache lack of money,stiff words of people,people become his enemy,he gets failed at some occasions in life,becomes weak in this struggle,then ultimately after two or three decades he becomes capable of earning.But one thing is very interesting and fact that  with the passage of time the needs of a man vary and change.In his childhood man likes coins only and coins are big currency for him,he likes toffees,biscuits and milk only.When a man become some mature age he thinks differently and likes differently.His needs,requirements,ambitions,goals,targets,eating stuff and living standards change entirely with the passage of time.

far away job destination after passing a number of years in education field.

Job problems

At present inflation is common,jobs are few,poverty is spreading like fire,parents are killing their children just for the sake of money and just to get release from the burden of their bring up and look after.In this scenario and at this level of time jobs become important.But the jobs available recently are not so much  costly so as to get paid highly.Unfortunately,graduated and highly furnished persons are doing jobs of least income just due to lack of high income jobs.Now a days like education competitions job competitions standard has also revised and enhanced greatly.One major issue for not getting good jobs is the self coward of a man.The people of today are less educated,possess less skills,they lack of passion.They should get passion of work from Chinese that Chinese work 24 hours and due to this striving and hardworking we are self witness that China is prevailing the world and is in the list of developed countries as well.

Occupation and life expectancy

Manual work seems to shorten the lifespan. High rank (a higher position at the pecking order) has a positive effect. Professions that cause anxiety have a direct negative impact on health and lifespan. Some data are more complex to interpret due to the various reasons of long life expectancy; thus skilled professionals, employees with secure jobs and low anxiety occupants may live a long life for variant reasons. The more positive characteristics a job has, the more it attributes on a longer lifespan. Gender, country and actual (what statistics reveal, not what people believe) danger are also notable parameters.

Steve Jobs

Steven Paul "Steve" Jobs (/ˈdʒɒbz/; February 24, 1955 – October 5, 2011) was an American businessman, inventor, and industrial designer. He was the co-founder, chairman, and chief executive officer (CEO) of Apple Inc.; CEO and majority shareholder of Pixar; a member of The Walt Disney Company's board of directors following its acquisition of Pixar; and founder, chairman, and CEO of NeXT. Jobs is widely recognized as a pioneer of the microcomputer revolution of the 1970s and 1980s, along with Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak.

Jobs was adopted at birth in San Francisco, and raised in the San Francisco Bay Area during the 1960s. Jobs briefly attended Reed College in 1972 before dropping out. He then decided to travel through India in 1974 seeking enlightenment and studying Zen Buddhism. Jobs's declassified FBI report says an acquaintance knew that Jobs used illegal drugs in college including marijuana and LSD. Jobs told a reporter once that taking LSD was "one of the two or three most important things" he did in his life.

Jobs co-founded Apple in 1976 to sell Wozniak's Apple I personal computer. The duo gained fame and wealth a year later for the Apple II, one of the first highly successful mass-produced personal computers. In 1979, after a tour of PARC, Jobs saw the commercial potential of the Xerox Alto, which was mouse-driven and had a graphical user interface (GUI). This led to development of the unsuccessful Apple Lisa in 1983, followed by the breakthrough Macintosh in 1984. In addition to being the first mass-produced computer with a GUI, the Macintosh instigated the sudden rise of the desktop publishing industry in 1985 with the addition of the Apple LaserWriter, the first laser printer to feature vector graphics. Following a long power struggle, Jobs was forced out of Apple in 1985.

After leaving Apple, Jobs took a few of its members with him to found NeXT, a computer platform development company specializing in state-of-the-art computers for higher-education and business markets. In addition, Jobs helped to initiate the development of the visual effects industry when he funded the spinout of the computer graphics division of George Lucas's Lucasfilm in 1986. The new company, Pixar, would eventually produce the first fully computer-animated film, Toy Story—an event made possible in part because of Jobs's financial support.

In 1997, Apple acquired and merged NeXT, allowing Jobs to become CEO once again, reviving the company at the verge of bankruptcy. Beginning in 1997 with the "Think different" advertising campaign, Jobs worked closely with designer Jonathan Ive to develop a line of products that would have larger cultural ramifications: the iMac, iTunes and iTunes Store, Apple Store, iPod, iPhone, App Store, and the iPad. Mac OS was also revamped into OS X (renamed “macOS” in 2016), based on NeXT's NeXTSTEP platform.Courtesy of wikipedia...

FREELANCER ACTIVITIES?

Who is a freelancer?

A freelancer an independent and self boss person works in an extensive and huge field.Freelancing an art of earning the world.All the works present in the world of internet are there for some one to do them and earn dollars.But if  a freelancer will intend to choose those works or not it is his own decision and mentality.A good and nice thing about good freelancers of the time is that they care for time and make their time  golden and precious.Due to such carefulness of time freelancers become the richest person of the world.Why the richest person of the world,because money is time and time is money.

significance of  time

Play of freelancers

Now a days freelancers are the main bodies and experts who are playing in the world of internet using their outstanding skills like Shahid Afridi and throwing balls like Shoaib Akhtar and they are keeper internet world like our Kamran akmal.The whole world of internet is just like a ball in the hands of freelancers.The field of freelancing is providing more and more ease to the international world.As freelancers are increasing day by day more and more platforms for freelancers are appearing in the internet world to absorb the skills of these freelancers and experts.It is interesting and particular information that Pakistani freelancers are thinking and discovering valuable and technical ways for the future freelancers to make their problems solve in the field freelancing.No doubt Pakistan will be at hitlist in freelancers activities in the future INSHALAH.

Hardworking and struggle

It is also the greatest fact of freelancers that freelancers are very much hard worker.By nature computer gadget is a device like this that when a man starts his interfacing with computer and internet then a bar magnet develops between user and internet.The hardworking is not easy task for a man.But freelancers feel comfortable remaining busy in freelancing activities.Soon freelancers will be among the richest persons of the world.Then at that moment world will be able to know the importance of freelancing and the significance of freelancers  as well.Some freelancers work throughout the night for their freelancing activities.When a freelancer becomes expert in freelancing field then he can earn hundred's of dollars in a single day or night.

Freelance practices and compensation

According to the 2012 Freelance Industry Report compiled primarily about North America freelancing, nearly half of freelancers do writing work, with 18% of freelancers listing writing as a primary skill, 10% editing/copy-editing, and 10% as copy-writing. 20% of freelancers listed their primary skills as design. Next on the list was translating (8%), web development (5.5%), and marketing (4%). Elance, a web platform that connects freelancers with contractors, surveyed its members and 39% listed writing and editing as their main skill set.

Depending on the industry, freelance work practices vary and have changed over time. In some industries such as consulting, freelancers may require clients to sign written contracts. While in journalism or writing, freelancers may work for free or do work "on spec" to build their reputations or a relationship with a publication. Some freelancers may provide written estimates of work and request deposits from clients.

Payment for freelance work also depends on industry, skills, and experience. Freelancers may charge by the day, hour, a piece rate, or on a per-project basis. Instead of a flat rate or fee, some freelancers have adopted a value-based pricing method based on the perceived value of the results to the client. By custom, payment arrangements may be upfront, percentage upfront, or upon completion. For more complex projects, a contract may set a payment schedule based on milestones or outcomes. One of the drawbacks of freelancing is that there is no guaranteed payment, and the work can be highly precarious.

In writing and other artistic fields, "freelance" and its derivative terms are often reserved for workers who create works on their own initiative and then seek a publisher. They typically retain the copyright to their works and sell the rights to publishers in time-limited contracts. Traditionally, works would be submitted to publishers, where they would become part of the slushpile, and would either elicit an offer to buy (an "acceptance letter") or a rejection slip.

People who create intellectual property under a work for hire situation (according to the publishers' or other customers' specifications) are sometimes referred to as "independent contractors" or other similar terms. Creators give up their rights to their works in a "works made for hire" situation, a category of intellectual property defined in U.S. copyright law — Section 101, Copyright Act of 1976 (17 USC §101). The protection of the intellectual property rights that give the creator of the work are considered to have been sold into a work for hire agreement. of employees, however in a contractual rather than employment relationship.

Demographics

The total number of freelancers in USA is inexact, as the most recent governmental report on independent contractors was published in 2005 by the U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics. At that time, there were approximately 10.3 million United States workers (7.4% of the workforce) employed as independent contractors of all sorts. In 2011, Jeffrey Eisenach, an economist at George Mason University, estimated that number of freelancers had grown by one million.While in 2012, the Aberdeen Group, a private research company, estimated that 26% (approx. 81 million) of the United States population was is a part of the contingent workforce, a category of casual labor that includes freelancing.

In 2013, the Freelancers Union estimated that 1 in 3 workers in the United States were self-employed (approximately 42 million), with more than four million (43%) of those self-employed workers members of the creative class, a stratum of work specifically associated with freelance industries, such as knowledge workers, technologists, professional writers, artists, entertainers, and media workers.

The total number of freelancers in UK is also inexact; however, figures from the Office of National Statistics show that people working mainly at or from home rose from 9.2% in 2001 to 10.7% in 2011. It has been estimated that there are approximately 1.7 million freelancers in the UK,however.

Freelancing is a gendered form of work. The 2012 Freelance Industry Report estimates that more than 71% of freelancers are women between the ages of 30 and 50. Surveys of other specific areas of freelancing have similar trends. Demographic research on Amazon Mechanical Turk reveals that the majority of North American Mechanical Turk workers are women. Catherine McKercher's research on journalism as a profession has showcased that while media organizations are still male-dominated, the reverse is true for freelance journalists and editors, whose ranks are mainly women.Courtesy of wikipeda///

BUSINESS USING FREELANCING BUT HOW?

Business and freelancing

An educated  man know what is business and what is freelancing.As business is done independently and man is free to take decisions and make commitments about his business.Similarly freelancing that means an independent occupation.

a freelancer

Freelancing encircles the world

Now a days freelancing is encircling the world and soon it will prevail like a current in every part of the world and the world will look like a global village just due to freelancing activities.At present a minute fraction knows something  about freelancers and freelancing activities.It is also fact that many people are the expert freelancers of the present and they are earning amazing number of dollars.I also know some freelancers who are enjoying the freelancing field by earning more and more dollars by freelancing activities.

Need of freelancers

Now a days life has become like a machine due to advancement and progress of science and technology.We people have no time to enjoy,rest and doing other personal tasks of daily routine.When we have no time nature of  such a person demands that there should be a person to do his all works and daily routine jobs.To fulfill such needs of people freelancers are present in the internet world who do all tasks and jobs for earning the dollars.The freelancing is a mature field of earning dollars and a trustworthy way of becoming millionaire and the rich man of the time.

Business in the shadow of freelancing 

Freelancing is such an extensive and broad path of becoming a richer that unlimited businesses can be done by using freelancer activities and services.For example due to lack of time people have no time for their own shopping,so they get those things online in same price with more protocols.Similarly property is purchased and sold online the world of internet.You will think that the aspects i am explaining are running through websites and other commercial sites.I would like to say that all websites commercial,educational,property dealing,for advertisement of something are sub parts of freelancing.We should also have some knowledge about this field as in the future every second one will be renowned freelancer and his earnings will be extraordinary. We can sale clothes online if we are trader of clothes.

Marketing of your interests

You can make marketing of your institutes,shops,mills,factories,industries,schools,colleges,universities and all other fields of interest using freelancing mechanism.You can  make an educational website or blog on the internet to share your useful and beneficial ideas  and experiences.Many people are freelancer and they are employing the art of freelancing by running their own call centers.If you are interested in teaching then plenty of jobs is there on internet.

Benefits

Freelancers have a variety of reasons for freelancing, the perceived benefits differ by gender, industry, and lifestyle. For instance, the 2012 Freelance Industry Report reported that men and women freelance for different reasons. Female survey respondents indicated that they prefer the scheduling freedom and flexibility that freelancing offers, while male survey respondents indicated they freelance to follow or pursue personal passions. Freelancing also enables people to obtain higher levels of employment in isolated communities.

Freelancing is also taken up by workers who have been laid-off, who cannot find full-time employment,or for those industries such as journalism which are relying increasingly on contingent labor rather than full-time staff. Freelancers also consist of students trying to make ends meet during the semester. In interviews and on blogs about freelancing, freelancers list choice and flexibility as a benefit.

Drawbacks

Traditional Freelance Work System

Freelancing, like other forms of casual labor, can be precarious work. Websites, books, portals and organizations for freelancers often feature advice on getting and keeping a steady work stream. Beside the lack of job security, many freelancers also report the ongoing hassle of dealing with employers who don't pay on time and the possibility of long periods without work. Additionally, freelancers do not receive employment benefits such as a pension, sick leave, paid holidays, bonuses or health insurance, which can be a serious hardship for freelancers residing in countries such as the US without universal health care.

Freelancers often earn less than their employed counterparts. While most freelancers have at least ten years of experience prior to working independently, experienced freelancers do not always earn an income equal to that of full-time employment. Based on feedback from members, it soon becomes apparent that web portals such as Freelancer.com tend to attract low paying clients that, although demanding very high standards, pay ~$10 per hour or less. Low-cost suppliers frequently offer to work at rates as low as $1–$2 per hour. Because most projects require bidding, professionals will not bid because they refuse to work at such rates. This has the effect of reducing the overall quality of the services provided.

According to research conducted in 2005 by the Professional Writers Association of Canada on Canadian journalists and editors, there is a wage gap between staff and freelance journalists. While the typical Canadian full-time freelancer is female, between 35-55, holding a college diploma and often a graduate degree, she typically earns about $29,999 Canadian dollars before taxes. Meanwhile, a staff journalist of similar age and experience level working full-time at outlets such as the Ottawa Citizen or Montreal Gazette newspapers, earned at least $63,500 Canadian dollars that year, the top scale rate negotiated by the union, The Newspaper Guild-Communications Workers of America.Given the gendered stratification of journalism, with more women working as freelancers than men, this disparity in income can be interpreted as a form of gender pay gap. The Professional Writers Association of Canada report showed no significant difference between the earnings of male and female freelancers, though part-time freelancers generally earned less than full-time freelancers.

Working from home is often cited as an attractive feature of freelancing, yet research suggests working from home introduces new sets of constraints for the process of doing work, particularly for married women with families, who continue to bear the brunt of household chores and child care despite increases in their paid work time. For instance, three years of ethnographic research about teleworkers in Australia conducted by Melissa Gregg, a Principal Engineer and Researcher in Residence for the Intel Science and Technology Center for Social Computing at UC Irvine, raises concerns over how both physical isolation and continuous access enabled with networked digital media puts pressure on homeworkers to demonstrate their commitments through continual responses by email and to conceal their family or home life.Courtesy of wikipedia....

AN INFORMATIVE COLLECTION ON FIR LATTICE STRUCTURES AND DIGITAL FILTERS?

Lattice structures and canonical structures

The basic discussion begins with FIR and IIR structures,furthermore some structures are canonical and some are non canonical structures.We normally study and examine lattice and lattice ladder structures and more specifically FIR lattice structures and IIR lattice structures,FIR lattice ladder structures and IIR lattice ladder structures.We are not over here to discuss all lattice and lattice ladder in detail our concern is associated with FIR lattice structures only.

general building block of FIR lattice structure

Lattice are canonical structures or not

Before exploring the idea lattice are canonical or not let us learn what are canonical structure and what is special about canonical structures.The structures where transfer function order and the number of delays in the block diagram are same are called canonical structures.The condition for canonical structures is obvious from the definition that delays in the block diagram and the order of the transfer function must be the same.On the other hand direct form structures categorized as direct form I and direct form II are canonical structures as the condition required for structures to be canonical is present in direct form of structures as well.One more reason why direct form structures are canonical this is due to their requirement of only N multiplications for their implementation.

If we talk about the lattice structures specifically then after observing these structures we come to know that order of transfer function and the number of delays in the block diagram are not equal in strength and FIR lattice structures  require 2N multiplications for their implementation.So lattice structures are not canonical structures.

Advantage of lattice structures

The big advantage of lattice structures is their elementary and fundamental usage in synthesis and analysis of speech and in adaptive applications like linear prediction.Furthermore,they are used for modeling of auto regressive signals.

FIR lattice structure simple definition

A system with two input and two outputs respectively of specific nature and requirements is called FIR lattice structure.Just explanatory and theoretical aspects are being discussed here.The lattice structures are completely described and parameterized by their respective coefficients.The coefficients of lattice structures are named differently including PARCOR coefficients and reflection coefficients too. 

Digital filter

A general finite impulse response filter with n stages, each with an independent delay, di, and amplification gain, ai.
In signal processing, a digital filter is a system that performs mathematical operations on a sampled, discrete-time signal to reduce or enhance certain aspects of that signal. This is in contrast to the other major type of electronic filter, the analog filter, which is an electronic circuit operating on continuous-time analog signals.

A digital filter system usually consists of an analog-to-digital converter to sample the input signal, followed by a microprocessor and some peripheral components such as memory to store data and filter coefficients etc. Finally a digital-to-analog converter to complete the output stage. Program Instructions (software) running on the microprocessor implement the digital filter by performing the necessary mathematical operations on the numbers received from the ADC. In some high performance applications, an FPGA or ASIC is used instead of a general purpose microprocessor, or a specialized DSP with specific paralleled architecture for expediting operations such as filtering.

Digital filters may be more expensive than an equivalent analog filter due to their increased complexity, but they make practical many designs that are impractical or impossible as analog filters. When used in the context of real-time analog systems, digital filters sometimes have problematic latency (the difference in time between the input and the response) due to the associated analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversions and anti-aliasing filters, or due to other delays in their implementation.

Digital filters are commonplace and an essential element of everyday electronics such as radios, cellphones, and AV receivers.

Characterization

A digital filter is characterized by its transfer function, or equivalently, its difference equation. Mathematical analysis of the transfer function can describe how it will respond to any input. As such, designing a filter consists of developing specifications appropriate to the problem (for example, a second-order low pass filter with a specific cut-off frequency), and then producing a transfer function which meets the specifications.

The transfer function for a linear, time-invariant, digital filter can be expressed as a transfer function in the Z-domain; if it is causal, then it has the form:

{\displaystyle H(z)={\frac {B(z)}{A(z)}}={\frac {b_{0}+b_{1}z^{-1}+b_{2}z^{-2}+\cdots +b_{N}z^{-N}}{1+a_{1}z^{-1}+a_{2}z^{-2}+\cdots +a_{M}z^{-M}}}} H(z)={\frac  {B(z)}{A(z)}}={\frac  {{b_{{0}}+b_{{1}}z^{{-1}}+b_{{2}}z^{{-2}}+\cdots +b_{{N}}z^{{-N}}}}{{1+a_{{1}}z^{{-1}}+a_{{2}}z^{{-2}}+\cdots +a_{{M}}z^{{-M}}}}}
where the order of the filter is the greater of N or M. See Z-transform's LCCD equation for further discussion of this transfer function.

This is the form for a recursive filter, which typically leads to an IIR infinite impulse response behaviour, but if the denominator is made equal to unity i.e. no feedback, then this becomes an FIR or finite impulse response filter.

Types of digital filters

Many digital filters are based on the fast Fourier transform, a mathematical algorithm that quickly extracts the frequency spectrum of a signal, allowing the spectrum to be manipulated (such as to create band-pass filters) before converting the modified spectrum back into a time-series signal.

Another form of a digital filter is that of a state-space model. A well used state-space filter is the Kalman filter published by Rudolf Kalman in 1960.

Traditional linear filters are usually based on attenuation. Alternatively nonlinear filters can be designed, including energy transfer filters  which allow the user to move energy in a designed way. So that unwanted noise or effects can be moved to new frequency bands either lower or higher in frequency, spread over a range of frequencies, split, or focused. Energy transfer filters complement traditional filter designs and introduce many more degrees of freedom in filter design. Digital energy transfer filters are relatively easy to design and to implement and exploit nonlinear dynamics.Courtesy of wikipedia...

WHAT IS PROCESS OF FREELANCING?

THREE MAIN CATEGORIES OF FREELANCING

The following three categories are three field around which freelancing revolves and which are basically domains and fields of freelancing.

a working freelancer

1. website
2. blogger
3. work

WEBSITE

For freelancing perspectives,if your field is website development and designing or running your own websites then the all aspects about website designing,developing,running and selling websites are freelancing works.In website we deal with pages.Pages are of static nature i mean to say that in pages we place information which will not be changed for a long time or we will chang it never.

dollars by websites

BLOGGER

The world blog is the invention of google.Blog is provided free by means its hosting and domain is free for anyone to work.Similarly blog development and designing,running blogs are also freelancing works on internet.In blog we have post word.A post is a dynamic data place where constantly data is modified again and again.

work

All sorts of tasks and activities to earn money other than websites and blog are included in the section of work.Here i mean to say word work is all sorts of skills and expertise which can be employed for earning money from people.All works about graphic designing,websites developing,blog formation and all articles,essay writing,editing,typing,science fields work,engineering field all projects,teaching online,designing softwares,installing softwares online are works of freelancing that fall in the third category that is work simply.

SKILLS CRITERION

Now a days due to advanced sciences and technologies world's status has increased many fold than the past situations.The complete world has become a global village modern resources for informing people are common today.Now the man knows everything occurring in any part of the world by newspapers,media,anchors,cable and other electronic and print media.In freelancing the smallest skill is valuable and worthwhile in the internet world.If you want to become freelancer be ready show your talent demonstrate what do you have.One question bothers many people that what we have to do freelancing,they say we have no skill for freelancing,this category of basically does not know what is freelancing and its terms and conditions.Respectable Mr.if you are expert of even the typing skil then be happy you have ability to become freelancer just arrange one personal computer or laptop,set your time and show your typing skill on internet  and you will find there many jobs and will get some specific job there.

Legal aspects

Many periodicals and newspapers offer the option of ghost signing, when a freelance writer signs with an editor but their name is not listed on the byline of their article(s). This allows the writer to receive benefits while still being classified as a freelancer, and independent of any set organization. In some countries this can lead to taxation issues (e.g., so-called IR35 violations in the UK). Ghost signing has little bearing on whether a writer is a freelancer or employee in the US.

Freelancers often must handle contracts, legal issues, accounting, marketing, and other business functions by themselves. If they do choose to pay for professional services, they can sometimes turn into significant out-of-pocket expenses. Working hours can extend beyond the standard working day and working week.

The European Commission does not define “freelancers” in any legislative text. However, the European Commission defines a self-employed person as someone: “pursuing a gainful activity for their own account, under the conditions laid down by national law”. In the exercise of such an activity, the personal element is of special importance and such exercise always involves a large measure of independence in the accomplishment of the professional activities. This definition comes from Directive (2010/41/EU) on the application of the principle of equal treatment between men and women engaged in an activity in a self-employed capacity.

The European Forum of Independent Professionals defines freelancers as: “a highly-skilled subset of self-employed workers, without employers nor employees, offering specialised services of an intellectual and knowledge-based nature”. Independent professionals work on a flexible basis in a range of creative, managerial, scientific and technical occupations; they are not a homogeneous group and as such, they cannot be considered or investigated as a whole. They are generally characterised by a large portion of autonomy, a high labour productivity, knowledge intensive performance, social commitment and a large dose of entrepreneurship and specialisation.

In Europe, the perceived disadvantages of being freelance have led the European Union to research the area, producing draft papers[citation needed] that would, if enforced, make it illegal for companies or organizations to employ freelancers directly, unless the freelancer was entitled to benefits such as pension contributions and holiday pay. In the UK, where the terms of integration into the EU have and are being hotly debated, this would lead to a significant reshaping of the way freelance work is dealt with and have a major impact on industry; employers would be required either to give freelancers the contractual rights of employees or employ only freelancers already being employed by agencies or other organizations granting them these rights. However, the White Papers that recommend such moves have not yet been adopted in the EU, and the potential impact on UK employment laws is being opposed by key UK organizations lobbying the government to negotiate over the acceptance of EU legislation in such areas.[citation needed] The legal definition of a sole trader requires that he/she must have more than one client or customer which promotes the freelancing ethos.

In the U.S. in 2009, federal and state agencies began increasing their oversight of freelancers and other workers whom employers classify as independent contractors. The U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) recommended that the Secretary of Labor have its Wage and Hour Division "focus on misclassification of employees as independent contractors during targeted investigations." The increased regulation is meant to ensure workers are treated fairly and that companies are not misclassifying workers as independent contractors to avoid paying appropriate employment taxes and contributions to workers’ compensation and unemployment compensation.

At the same time, this increased enforcement is affecting companies whose business models are based on using non-employee workers, as well as independent professionals who have chosen to work as independent contractors. For example, book publishing companies have traditionally outsourced certain tasks like indexing and proofreading to individuals working as independent contractors. Self-employed accountants and attorneys have traditionally hired out their services to accounting and law firms needing assistance. The U.S. Internal Revenue Service offers some guidance on what constitutes self-employment, but states have enacted stricter laws to address how independent contractors should be defined. For example, a Massachusetts law states that companies can hire independent contractors only to perform work that is "outside the usual course of business of the employer," meaning workers working on the company's core business must be classified as employees. According to this statute, a software engineering firm cannot outsource work to a software engineering consultant, without hiring the consultant as an employee. The firm could, however, hire an independent contractor working as an electrician, interior decorator, or painter. This raises questions about the common practice of consulting, because a company would typically hire a management consulting firm or self-employed consultant to address business-specific needs that are not "outside the usual course of business of the employer."

Etymology

Although it is commonly attributed to Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832) in Ivanhoe (1820) to describe a "medieval mercenary warrior" or "free-lance" (indicating that the lance is not sworn to any lord's services, not that the lance is available free of charge), a previous appearance occurs in Thomas N. Brown in The Life and Times of Hugh Miller (1809). It changed to a figurative noun around the 1860s and was recognized as a verb in 1903 by authorities in etymology such as the Oxford English Dictionary. Only in modern times has the term morphed from a noun (a freelance) into an adjective (a freelance journalist), a verb (a journalist who freelances) and an adverb (she worked freelance), as well as into the noun "freelancer".

world of skills.Courtesy of wikipedia...

  

WORTH AND REALITY OF GENERAL ENGINEERING WORD AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION?

PHILOSOPHY OF ENGINEERING 

Majority of the people either literate or illiterate does not know the true meaning of the word engineering.Engineering means  performance,efficient working and expertness in any task.The beauty of the present world and and progressive today's age is also due to engineering services.
We can say engineering is the art of things creation,inventing the equipments and discovering the hidden treasures of  Nature.

engineering system mechanism

REALITY OF ENGINEERING 

If a person has simple graduation degree,or he is simple B.A or B.com student or he has BS honor degree or he is student of any simple program then his mentality,skills,personified status,behavior ,achievement approach and leadership qualities are limited to an extent.Discoveries,inventions and creations are a hard task for him to achieve.But if comment upon person who possesses engineering degree then discoveries,inventions and creations become a child play for such an educator.Such a literate person can change and modify the present world status,can contribute amazingly towards his country economy,posses leadership qualities,owner of outstanding abilities and capabilities,a revolutionary figure in society,discoverer of required things,inventor of valuable products and ultimately hero of the nation due to his unique and exemplary features and characteristics.

engineering system mechanism and steps

ACHIEVEMENTS OF ENGINEERING 

As we know it is age of science and technology and world is shifting towards science protocols and services.The present world is full of discoveries,inventions and achievements of engineering.From medical field to other educational fields engineering services are present.From aeroplanes world to the  bikes,cars,rickshaws,vehicles and UBER modern technology world are running on engineering protocols.From the construction of buildings to the roads construction everywhere engineering philosophy is working.From trade centers to the markets engineering is present.All sorts of offices,ports,agricultural fields,instrumentation manufacturing and all educational centers engineering is rendering valuable and beneficial services.All the scientists and inventors of the past were mostly engineers of some special field.Now a days majority of the students is bending  towards engineering side.Furthermore engineering is facilitating societies,providing easeness and converting man power to the machine power.Businesses have upgraded due to new inventions and progressive nature of the time. Water dams are improving and better and efficient energy production and consumption is possible using engineering protocols.

engineering base system for energy production

Main branches of engineering

Engineering is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of engineering work. Although initially an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined areas. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches:

Chemical engineering – 

The application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation, and biomolecule production.

Civil engineering – 

The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, dams, and buildings.

Electrical engineering – 

The design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as electrical circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, controls, and electronics.

Mechanical engineering – 

The design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products, engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing, and mechatronics.

Beyond these "Big Four", a number of other branches are recognized. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields sometimes included as major branches are manufacturing engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, petroleum, environmental, systems, audio, software, architectural, agricultural, biosystems, biomedical, geological, textile, industrial, materials, and nuclear engineering. These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council.

New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including anthropology, engineering studies, environmental science, ethics and philosophy of engineering. A new or emerging area of application will commonly be defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of existing disciplines; there is often gray area as to when a given sub-field warrants classification as a new "branch." One key indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and programs in the new field.

For each of these fields, there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of fundamental sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry, and mathematics. As a result, there are many different types of engineering degrees available. In the past, engineering could be divided into four major branches: mechanical, chemical, civil and electrical, with sub-branches of each discipline. Today, however, the number of engineering degrees available have increased dramatically.

Practice

One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur, European Engineer, or Designated Engineering Representative. In the UK many trades are called "Engineer" including gas, telephone, photocopy, maintenance, plumber-heating, drainage, sanitary, auto mechanic, TV, Refrigerator, electrician, washing machine, TV antenna installer (satellite) and many others.Courtesy of wikipeda...

TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING?

TYPES OF STRUCTURES IN DSP

1. direct form
2. cascade form
3. parallel form
4. transposed form(remaining coming soon)

CANONICAL STRUCTURE 

A canonical structure that is a special featured structure is defined as a structure in which order of  original transfer function is same as the number  of our block diagram delays or same number of delays in block diagram and order of transfer function. Both direct form one and direct form two structures are examples of canonical structures.

output graph of canonical structure

NON CANONICAL STRUCTURE 

A non canonical structure is defined as the structure  in which number of delays present in block diagram representation are not equal to the order of transfer function.

graph of non canonical structure

DEFINITION OF DIRECT FORM STRUCTURE

A particular sort of structure where the coefficients of multiplier components are almost same as the transfer function coefficients is called direct form structure.

FEATURES OF DSP STRUCTURES 

We know the basic difference between direct form I and II that is in direct form I poles are written first then zeros and in direct II zeros are first and then poles are written.Furthermore,in direct form II memory is reduced means our hardware is reduced that means there is less number of adders and multipliers in direct formII. In FIR filters we have only zeros andd in IIR filters we write both poles and zeros as well.Transposed structure is used in FIR filters for the purpose of tapped delay line achievement.

WHICH STRUCTURE IS MORE ROBUST AND STABLE

All the filters have their own specific speed of computation and stability.But if we observe computation speed and stability perspectives of structures in dsp then we can conclude that among all structure sorts parallel structures are the most speedy with respect to computation and direct form structures are the most stable structures.

CATEGORIES OF FIR AND IIR STRUCTURES

             IIR                                                                                                IIR

1. direct form I&II                                                                           direct form I&II
2. cascade form                                                                                cascade form
3. parallel form                                                                                 frequency sampling

Digital signal processing

Digital signal processing (DSP) is the use of digital processing, such as by computers, to perform a wide variety of signal processing operations. The signals processed in this manner are a sequence of numbers that represent samples of a continuous variable in a domain such as time, space, or frequency.

Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing. DSP applications include audio and speech signal processing, sonar, radar and other sensor array processing, spectral estimation, statistical signal processing, digital image processing, signal processing for telecommunications, control of systems, biomedical engineering, seismic data processing, among others.

Digital signal processing can involve linear or nonlinear operations. Nonlinear signal processing is closely related to nonlinear system identification and can be implemented in the time, frequency, and spatio-temporal domains.

The application of digital computation to signal processing allows for many advantages over analog processing in many applications, such as error detection and correction in transmission as well as data compression.  DSP is applicable to both streaming data and static (stored) data.

Signal sampling

Main article: Sampling (signal processing)

The increasing use of computers has resulted in the increased use of, and need for, digital signal processing. To digitally analyze and manipulate an analog signal, it must be digitized with an analog-to-digital converter. Sampling is usually carried out in two stages, discretization and quantization. Discretization means that the signal is divided into equal intervals of time, and each interval is represented by a single measurement of amplitude. Quantization means each amplitude measurement is approximated by a value from a finite set. Rounding real numbers to integers is an example.

The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a signal can be exactly reconstructed from its samples if the sampling frequency is greater than twice the highest frequency of the signal. In practice, the sampling frequency is often significantly higher than twice that required by the signal's limited bandwidth.

Theoretical DSP analyses and derivations are typically performed on discrete-time signal models with no amplitude inaccuracies (quantization error), "created" by the abstract process of sampling. Numerical methods require a quantized signal, such as those produced by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The processed result might be a frequency spectrum or a set of statistics. But often it is another quantized signal that is converted back to analog form by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

Domains

In DSP, engineers usually study digital signals in one of the following domains: time domain (one-dimensional signals), spatial domain (multidimensional signals), frequency domain, and wavelet domains. They choose the domain in which to process a signal by making an informed assumption (or by trying different possibilities) as to which domain best represents the essential characteristics of the signal. A sequence of samples from a measuring device produces a temporal or spatial domain representation, whereas a discrete Fourier transform produces the frequency domain information, that is, the frequency spectrum.

Time and space domains

The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the input signal through a method called filtering. Digital filtering generally consists of some linear transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or output signal. There are various ways to characterize filters; for example:

A "linear" filter is a linear transformation of input samples; other filters are "non-linear". Linear filters satisfy the superposition condition, i.e. if an input is a weighted linear combination of different signals, the output is a similarly weighted linear combination of the corresponding output signals.

A "causal" filter uses only previous samples of the input or output signals; while a "non-causal" filter uses future input samples. A non-causal filter can usually be changed into a causal filter by adding a delay to it.

A "time-invariant" filter has constant properties over time; other filters such as adaptive filters change in time.

A "stable" filter produces an output that converges to a constant value with time, or remains bounded within a finite interval. An "unstable" filter can produce an output that grows without bounds, with bounded or even zero input.

A "finite impulse response" (FIR) filter uses only the input signals, while an "infinite impulse response" filter (IIR) uses both the input signal and previous samples of the output signal. FIR filters are always stable, while IIR filters may be unstable.

A filter can be represented by a block diagram, which can then be used to derive a sample processing algorithm to implement the filter with hardware instructions. A filter may also be described as a difference equation, a collection of zeroes and poles or, if it is an FIR filter, an impulse response or step response.

The output of a linear digital filter to any given input may be calculated by convolving the input signal with the impulse response.

Frequency domain

Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency domain usually through the Fourier transform. The Fourier transform converts the signal information to a magnitude and phase component of each frequency. Often the Fourier transform is converted to the power spectrum, which is the magnitude of each frequency component squared.

The most common purpose for analysis of signals in the frequency domain is analysis of signal properties. The engineer can study the spectrum to determine which frequencies are present in the input signal and which are missing.

In addition to frequency information, phase information is often needed. This can be obtained from the Fourier transform. With some applications, how the phase varies with frequency can be a significant consideration.

Filtering, particularly in non-realtime work can also be achieved by converting to the frequency domain, applying the filter and then converting back to the time domain. This is a fast, O(n log n) operation, and can give essentially any filter shape including excellent approximations to brickwall filters.

There are some commonly used frequency domain transformations. For example, the cepstrum converts a signal to the frequency domain through Fourier transform, takes the logarithm, then applies another Fourier transform. This emphasizes the harmonic structure of the original spectrum.

Frequency domain analysis is also called spectrum- or spectral analysis.

Z-plane analysis

Digital filters come in both IIR and FIR types. FIR filters have many advantages, but are computationally more demanding. Whereas FIR filters are always stable, IIR filters have feedback loops that may resonate when stimulated with certain input signals. The Z-transform provides a tool for analyzing potential stability issues of digital IIR filters. It is analogous to the Laplace transform, which is used to design analog IIR filters.

Wavelet

An example of the 2D discrete wavelet transform that is used in JPEG2000. The original image is high-pass filtered, yielding the three large images, each describing local changes in brightness (details) in the original image. It is then low-pass filtered and downscaled, yielding an approximation image; this image is high-pass filtered to produce the three smaller detail images, and low-pass filtered to produce the final approximation image in the upper-left.

In numerical analysis and functional analysis, a discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is any wavelet transform for which the wavelets are discretely sampled. As with other wavelet transforms, a key advantage it has over Fourier transforms is temporal resolution: it captures both frequency and location information.Courtesy of wikipedia....

Easy and comprehensive description of voice control and remote control wheel chair project?

Introduction

Voice control and remote control wheel chair is such a sort of project in which wheel chair is controlled with respect to voice and remote. Here geetech speech recognition module is used for wheel chair controlling by voice. And double pole double throw switch(DPDT switch) is used for remote control purposes. A wheel chair will be controlled by geetech in left and right, forward and backward directions and stop too. The DPDT switch helps us controlling wheel chair in remote fashion manually.(coming soon)

Required Components:

·        Geetech speech recognition

·        LM293D motor driver

·        Aurdino UNO

·        DC motors

·        Resistors

·        Wheel chair structure

·        DPDT Switches

·        Batteries

·        Voltage regulator

·        2 core shield wire

Block diagram 

Proposed methodology:

Methodology that we are going to suppose in voice control and remote control project is of special interest and informative too. Geetech that is voice recognition module synchronized with arduino. Voice control module has three groups but we are using only one group. One group contains a proper functionality by which we synchronize geetech module with arduino in such a way that left and right, forward and backward directions movement is achieved according to instructions provided to arduino of our choice and furthermore we can stop smart wheelchair by doing programming in arduino. The synchronized connection between geetech module and arduino becomes possible by mutual interlinking transmitters and receivers of both arduino and voice recognition module. Two motors connected to the arduino pins get arduino instructions in the form of left and right,forward and backward directions and stop mode and work according to these instructions  properly.

The second part is remote control that is performed using two double pole double throw switch(DPDT switch).This switch comprises six points or six pinholes that are directly connected to the motors and turning of of the switch helps us controlling the motor using  remote manually. Furthermore,two wire shield wire is used for efficient connections and performance.

Types of Wheelchair

There are a wide variety of types of wheelchair, differing by propulsion method, mechanisms of control, and technology used. Some wheelchairs are designed for general everyday use, others for single activities, or to address specific access needs. Innovation within the wheelchair industry is relatively common, but many innovations ultimately fall by the wayside, either from over-specialization, or from failing to come to market at an accessible price-point. The iBot is perhaps the best known example of this in recent years.

Manual self-propelled wheelchairs

A self-propelled manual wheelchair incorporates a frame, seat, one or two footplates (footrests) and four wheels: usually two caster wheels at the front and two large wheels at the back. There will generally also be a separate seat cushion. The larger rear wheels usually have push-rims of slightly smaller diameter projecting just beyond the tyre; these allow the user to manouevre the chair by pushing on them without requiring them to grasp the tyres. Manual wheelchairs generally have brakes that bear on the tyres of the rear wheels, however these are solely a parking brake and in-motion braking is provided by the user's palms bearing directly on the push-rims. As this causes friction and heat build-up, particularly on long downslopes, many wheelchair users will choose to wear padded wheelchair gloves. Manual wheelchairs often have two push handles at the upper rear of the frame to allow for manual propulsion by a second person, however many active wheelchair users will remove these to prevent unwanted pushing from people who believe they are being helpful.

Everyday manual wheelchairs come in two major varieties, folding or rigid. Folding chairs are generally low-end designs, whose predominant advantage is being able to fold, generally by bringing the two sides together. However this is largely an advantage for part-time users who may need to store the wheelchair more often than use it. Rigid wheelchairs, which are increasingly preferred by full-time and active users, have permanently welded joints and many fewer moving parts. This reduces the energy required to push the chair by eliminating many points where the chair would flex and absorb energy as it moves. Welded rather than folding joints also reduce the overall weight of the chair. Rigid chairs typically feature instant-release rear wheels and backrests that fold down flat, allowing the user to dismantle the chair quickly for storage in a car. A few wheelchairs attempt to combine the features of both designs by providing a fold-to-rigid mechanism in which the joints are mechanically locked when the wheelchair is in use.

Many rigid models are now made with ultralight materials such as aircraft-grade aluminium and titanium, and wheelchairs of composite materials such as carbon-fibre have started to appear. Ultralightweight rigid wheelchairs are commonly known as 'active user chairs' as they are ideally suited to independent use. Another innovation in rigid chair design is the installation of shock absorbers, such as Frog Legs, which cushion the bumps over which the chair rolls. These shock absorbers may be added to the front wheels, to the rear wheels, or both. Rigid chairs also have the option for their rear wheels to have a camber, or tilt, which angles the tops of the wheels in toward the chair. This allows for more mechanically efficient propulsion by the user and also makes it easier to hold a straight line while moving across a slope. Sport wheelchairs often have large camber angles to improve stability.

Rigid-framed chairs are generally made to measure, to suit both the specific size of the user and their needs and preferences around areas such as the "tippyness" of the chair - its stability around the rear axle. Experienced users with sufficient upper-body strength can generally balance the chair on its rear wheels, a "wheelie", and the "tippyness" of the chair controls the ease with which this can be initiated. The wheelie allows an independent wheelchair user to climb and descend curbs and move more easily over small obstacles and irregular ground such as cobbles.

The rear wheels of self-propelled wheelchairs typically range from 20–24 inches (51–61 cm)in diameter, and commonly resemble bicycle wheels. Wheels are rubber-tyred and may be solid, pneumatic or gel-filled. The wheels of folding chairs may be permanently attached, but those for rigid chairs are commonly fitted with quick-release axles activated by depressing a button at the centre of the wheel.

All major varieties of wheelchair can be highly customised for the user's needs. Such customisations may encompass the seat dimensions, height, seat angle, footplates, leg rests, front caster outriggers, adjustable backrests and controls. Various optional accessories are available, such as anti-tip bars or wheels, safety belts, adjustable backrests, tilt and/or recline features, extra support for limbs or head and neck, holders for crutches, walkers or oxygen tanks, drink holders, and mud and wheel-guards as clothing protectors.

Light weight and high cost are related in the manual wheelchair market. At the low-cost end, heavy, folding steel chairs with sling seats and little adaptability dominate. Users may be temporarily disabled, or using such a chair as a loaner, or simply unable to afford better. These chairs are common as "loaners" at large facilities such as airports, amusement parks and shopping centers. A slightly higher price band sees the same folding design produced in aluminium. Price typically then jumps from low to mid hundreds of pounds/dollars/euros to a four figure price range, with individually custom manufactured lightweight chairs with more options. The high end of the market contains ultra-light models, extensive seating options and accessories, all-terrain features, and so forth. The most expensive manual chairs may rival the cost of a small car.

Manual attendant-propelled wheelchairs

An attendant-propelled wheelchair is generally similar to a self-propelled manual wheelchair, but with small diameter wheels at both front and rear. The chair is manoeuvred and controlled by a person standing at the rear and pushing on handles incorporated into the frame. Braking is supplied directly by the attendant who will usually also be provided with a foot- or hand-operated parking brake.

These chairs are common in institutional settings and as loaner-chairs in large public venues. They are usually constructed from steel as light weight is less of a concern when the user is not required to self-propel.

Specially designed transfer chairs are now required features at airports in much of the developed world in order to allow access down narrow airliner aisles and facilitate the transfer of wheelchair-using passengers to and from their seats on the aircraft.

Powered wheelchairs

Main article: Motorized wheelchair

An electric-powered wheelchair, commonly called a "powerchair" is a wheelchair which additionally incorporates batteries and electric motors into the frame and that is controlled by either the user or an attendant, most commonly via a small joystick mounted on the armrest, or on the upper rear of the frame. For users who cannot manage a manual joystick, headswitches, chin-operated joysticks, sip-and-puff controllers or other specialist controls may allow independent operation of the wheelchair. Ranges of over 10 miles/15 km are commonly available from standard batteries.

Powerchairs are commonly divided by their access capabilities. An indoor-chair may only reliably be able to cross completely flat surfaces, limiting them to household use. An indoor-outdoor chair is less limited, but may have restricted range or ability to deal with slopes or uneven surfaces. An outdoor chair is more capable, but will still have a very restricted ability to deal with rough terrain. A very few specialist designs offer a true cross-country capability.

Powerchairs have access to the full range of wheelchair options, including ones which are difficult to provide in an unpowered manual chair, but have the disadvantage of significant extra weight. Where an ultra-lightweight manual chair may weigh under 10Kg, the largest outdoor power-chairs may weigh 200Kg or more.

Smaller power chairs often have four wheels, with front or rear wheel drive, but large outdoor designs commonly have six wheels, with small wheels at front and rear and somewhat larger powered wheels in the centre.

A power-assisted wheelchair is a recent development that uses the frame & seating of a typical rigid manual chair while replacing the standard rear wheels with wheels of similar size which incorporate batteries and battery-powered motors in the hubs. A floating rim design senses the pressure applied by the users push & activates the motors proportionately to provide a power assist. This results in the convenience, and small size of a manual chair while providing motorised assistance for rough/uneven terrain & steep slopes that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to navigate, especially by those with limited upper-body function. As the wheels necessarily come at a weight penalty it is often possible to exchange them with standard wheels to match the capabilities of the wheelchair to the current activity.

Mobility scooters

Mobility scooters share some features with powerchairs, but primarily address a different market segment, people with a limited ability to walk, but who might not otherwise consider themselves disabled. Smaller mobility scooters are typically three wheeled, with a base on which is mounted a basic seat at the rear, with a control tiller at the front. Larger scooters are frequently four-wheeled, with a much more substantial seat.

Opinions are often polarized as to whether mobility scooters should be considered wheelchairs or not, and negative stereotyping of scootr users is worse than for manual or powerchair users. Some commercial organisations draw a distinction between powerchairs and scooters when making access provisions due to a lack of clarity in the law as to whether scooters fall under the same equality legislation as wheelchairs.

Single-arm drive wheelchairs

One-arm or single arm drive enables a user to self-propel a manual wheelchair using only a single arm. The large wheel on the same side as the arm to be used is fitted with two concentric handrims, one of smaller diameter than the other. On most models the outer, smaller rim, is connected to the wheel on the opposite side by an inner concentric axle. When both handrims are grasped together, the chair may be propelled forward or backward in a straight line. When either handrim is moved independently, only a single wheel is used and the chair will turn left or right in response to the handrim used. Some wheelchairs, designed for use by hemiplegics, provide a similar function by linking both wheels rigidly together and using one of the footplates to control steering via a linkage to the front caster.

Reclining wheelchairs

Reclining or tilt-in-space wheelchairs have seating surfaces which can be tilted to various angles. The original concept was developed by an orthotist, Hugh Barclay, who worked with disabled children and observed that postural deformities such as scoliosis could be supported or partially corrected by allowing the wheelchair user to relax in a tilted position. The feature is also of value to users who are unable to sit upright for extended periods for pain or other reasons. Various designs are now available and wheelchairs with the feature may either tilt the seat-back and legrests in relation to the seat, or may tilt the entire back, seat and legrest as one, depending on the need of the user.

Standing wheelchairs

A standing wheelchair is one that supports the user in a nearly standing position. They can be used as both a wheelchair and a standing frame, allowing the user to sit or stand in the wheelchair as they wish. Some versions are entirely manual, others have powered stand on an otherwise manual chair, while others have full power, tilt, recline and variations of powered stand functions available. The benefits of such a device include, but are not limited to: aiding independence and productivity, raising self-esteem and psychological well-being, heightening social status, extending access, relief of pressure, reduction of pressure sores, improved functional reach, improved respiration, reduced occurrence of UTI, improved flexibility, help in maintaining bone mineral density, improved passive range motion, reduction in abnormal muscle tone and spasticity, and skeletal deformities. Other wheelchairs provide some of the same benefits by raising the entire seat to lift the user to standing height.

Sports wheelchairs

A modern racing wheelchair

A range of disabled sports have been developed for disabled athletes, including basketball, rugby, tennis, racing and dancing. The wheelchairs used for each sport have evolved to suit the specific needs of that sport and often no longer resemble their everyday cousins. They are usually non-folding (in order to increase rigidity), with a pronounced negative camber for the wheels (which provides stability and is helpful for making sharp turns), and often are made of composite, lightweight materials. Even seating position may be radically different, with racing wheelchairs generally used in a kneeling position. Sport wheelchairs are rarely suited for everyday use, and are often a 'second' chair specifically for sport use, although some users prefer the sport options for everyday. Some disabled people, for instance lower-limb amputees, may use a wheelchair for sports, but not for everyday activities.

Wheelchair stretchers

Wheelchair stretchers are a variant of wheeled stretchers/gurneys that can accommodate a sitting patient, or be adjusted to lie flat to help in the lateral (or supine) transfer of a patient from a bed to the chair or back. Once transferred, the stretcher can be adjusted to allow the patient to assume a sitting position.

All-terrain wheelchairs

All-terrain wheelchairs can allow users to access terrain otherwise completely inaccessible to a wheelchair user. Two different formats have been developed. One hybridises wheelchair and mountain bike technology, generally taking the form of a frame within which the user sits and with four mountain bike wheels at the corners. In general there are no push-rims and propulsion/braking is by pushing directly on the tyres.

A more common variant is the beach wheelchair which can allow better mobility on beach sand, including in the water, on uneven terrain, and even on snow. The common adaptation among the different designs is that they have extra-wide balloon wheels or tires, to increase stability and decrease ground pressure on uneven or unsteady terrain. Different models are available, both manual and battery-driven. In some countries in Europe, where accessible tourism is well established, many beaches have wheelchairs of this type available for loan/hire.

iBot

iBot was a radical powerchair developed by Dean Kamen to incorporate gyroscopic and active control technology, enabling the chair to balance and run on only two of its four wheels on some surfaces, thus raising the user to standing height. It was also able to climb stairs by leveraging the standing feature. The popular Segway Personal Transporter is a mobility device that was a direct outgrowth of the development of the iBOT wheelchair. The Segway, which is basically an iBOT with two wheels removed, was developed explicitly to increase the number of units produced and take advantage of the economies of scale to attempt to make the iBOT affordable to wheelchair users. While popular in concept, the $25,000 iBot, which was developed as a joint venture between Johnson and Johnson's Independence Technology and Kamen's DEKA Research, was priced at too high a price point to sustain the needed production and was discontinued in January 2009.

Smart wheelchairs

A smart wheelchair is any powerchair using a control system to augment or replace user control. Its purpose is to reduce or eliminate the user's task of driving a powerchair. Usually, a smart wheelchair is controlled via a computer, has a suite of sensors and applies techniques in mobile robotics, but this is not necessary. The interface may consist of a conventional wheelchair joystick, a "sip-and-puff" device or a touch-sensitive display. This differs from a conventional powerchair, in which the user exerts manual control over speed and direction without intervention by the wheelchair's control system.

Smart wheelchairs are designed for a variety of user types. Some are designed for users with cognitive impairments, such as dementia, these typically apply collision-avoidance techniques to ensure that users do not accidentally select a drive command that results in a collision. Othersfocus on users living with severe motor disabilities, such as cerebral palsy, or with quadriplegia, and the role of the smart wheelchair is to interpret small muscular activations as high-level commands and execute them. Such wheelchairs typically employ techniques from artificial intelligence, such as path-planning.Courtesy of wikipedia...